Dysphagia is a prevalent symptom of the upper gastrointestinal tract causing health related consequences, impacting quality of life and is associated with global economic burden. Swallowing difficulties are classified into oropharyngeal dysphagia (OD) and esophageal dysphagia. Despite its clinical importance, dysphagia is associated with several uncertainties regarding its optimal diagnostic work-up and management, particularly, considering the progress with diagnostic modalities and technologies. A Delphi consensus was performed with experts from various disciplines who conducted a literature summary and voting process on 41 statements. Quality of evidence was evaluated using the grading of recommendations, assessment, development, and evaluation criteria. Consensus was reached for all the statements. The panel agreed with the definition and prevalence of esophageal and OD types. The role of endoscopy, high-resolution manometry, EndoFLIP, barium swallow and other imaging tests in evaluating esophageal dysphagia has reached overall strong agreement. Videofluoroscopic swallow study, alongside fiber-endoscopic evaluation of swallowing, as the methods of choice for the instrumental assessment of oropharyngeal dysfunction is a strong recommendation. Regarding treatment, a weak recommendation was achieved for the use of PPIs, calcium-channel blockers, nitrates, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors, antidepressants or peppermint oil for the treatment of hypercontractile esophagus. A strong recommendation exists for endoscopic and surgical treatment of achalasia, while a weak recommendation is provided for other esophageal motility disorders. Regarding OD, a weak recommendation was achieved for swallow therapy, to improve swallowing mechanics, reduce symptoms, and enhance quality of life. Swallow therapy could be more effective when using validated assessment tools, consistent treatment parameters, and considering long-term follow-up. A multinational group of European experts summarized the current state of consensus on the definition, diagnosis, and management of dysphagia.

Introduction

Since the publication of the first European Society for the Study of Coeliac Disease (ESsCD) guidelines in 2019, significant advancements have emerged in the diagnosis of coeliac disease (CeD) in adults. These 2025 guidelines incorporate new evidence to refine diagnostic strategies, aiming for improved accuracy of testing, and enhance overall quality of clinical care.

Methods

A multidisciplinary panel of experts revised the ESsCD guidelines using the AGREE II instrument (Appraisal of Guidelines for Research and Evaluation II) and the GRADE methodology (The Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation). Clinical questions were structured using the PICO format, and statements and recommendations were finalised through a Delphi consensus process. Literature quality was assessed using AMSTAR-2 and QUADAS-2 tools.

Results

The updated guidelines are presented in two parts. Part 1 focuses on adult CeD diagnosis, introducing major changes such as a conditional no-biopsy approach for selected adults with high-titre IgA anti-TG2 serology (≥ 10 × ULN). Regarding serology, the use of validated high-performance ELISAs displaying a high diagnostic accuracy is emphasised, while routine use of IgA anti-Endomysium serology is no longer recommended for confirmation. Revised duodenal biopsy protocols now mandate at least four samples from the second part of the duodenum, with bulb biopsies conditionally included. The guidelines provide structured approaches for diagnosing potential CeD, seronegative villous atrophy, and CeD in individuals already on a gluten-free diet. HLA-DQ2/DQ8 typing is recommended for diagnostic clarification in select cases.

Conclusions

The updated 2025 ESsCD guidelines provide a comprehensive framework for the diagnosis of CeD in adults. By integrating evolving diagnostic strategies, minimising over-testing, and patient-centred care approaches, they aim to optimise patient outcomes, quality of life and use of diagnostic resources at the same time.

Malabsorption is a complex and multifaceted condition characterised by the defective passage of nutrients into the blood and lymphatic streams. Several congenital or acquired disorders may cause either selective or global malabsorption in both children and adults, such as cystic fibrosis, exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI), coeliac disease (CD) and other enteropathies, lactase deficiency, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), autoimmune atrophic gastritis, Crohn's disease, and gastric or small bowel resections. Early recognition of malabsorption is key for tailoring a proper diagnostic work-up for identifying the cause of malabsorption. A patient's medical and pharmacological history is essential for identifying risk factors. Several examinations such as endoscopy with small intestinal biopsies, non-invasive functional tests and radiological imaging are useful in diagnosing malabsorption. Because of its high prevalence, CD should always be looked for in cases of malabsorption with no other obvious explanations and in high-risk individuals. Nutritional support is key in the management of patients with malabsorption; different options are available, including oral supplements, enteral or parenteral nutrition. In patients with short bowel syndrome, teduglutide proved effective in reducing the need for parenteral nutrition, thus improving the quality of life of these patients. Primary care physicians play a central role in the early detection of malabsorption and should be involved in multidisciplinary teams for improving the overall management of these patients. In this European consensus, involving ten scientific societies and several experts, we have dissected all the issues around malabsorption, including the definitions and diagnostic testing (Part 1), high-risk categories and special populations, nutritional assessment and management, and primary care perspective (Part 2).